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SEJARAH EUGENIKA II: Implikasi dan Kontroversi

- by Pradipto Niwandhono - 225 Comments.
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Selama paruh pertama abad keduapuluh, gagasan eugenika (eugenics) diterapkan di berbagai belahan dunia sebagai upaya perbaikan kesejahteraan masyarakat, di samping untuk mencegah penyebaran faktor-faktor degeneratif yang akan menurunkan kualitas hidup, menciptakan lebih banyak kemiskinan dan penyakit. Namun, konsep ini kemudian dilihat sebagai sesuatu yang jahat karena penggunaannya untuk membenarkan praktek genosida oleh rezim nasional-sosialis Jerman, maupun oleh pendukung segregasi di negara-negara berbasis kolonialisme pemukim (settler-colonialism) di berbagai belahan dunia.

Pada bagian ini kita akan mengupas sisi kontroversial eugenika yang berawal dari ide tentang manusia unggul dan ’ras penguasa’ di sejumlah negara Barat.

Higiene Ras dan Manusia Unggul

Meski konsepsi awal eugenika berasal dari orang-orang Inggris, namun bangsa Jerman-lah yang paling berkontribusi pada pemikiran tentang pemurnian rasial. Beberapa tokoh yang paling penting terkait hal ini adalah biolog Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), dan filsuf Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Keduanya memiliki sejumlah ide yang dapat ditafsirkan sebagai determinisme biologis yang kemudian terdistorsi dan mendapat nama buruk karena praktik ideologis-politis terkait fasisme.

Sebagai pengikut Darwin paling terkemuka di Jerman, Ernst Haeckel dikenal sebagai tokoh yang mempromosikan istilah ‘monisme’ dalam terma naturalistik. Meski pada awalnya berkaitan dengan konsep metafisika dan/atau mistisisme tertentu, monisme modern menekankan pada kesatuan kodrati semesta sebagai entitas fisikal yang ‘dihubungkan’ oleh semacam substansi energi hidup. Postulat ini berhubungan juga dengan perkembangan aliran pemikiran seperti panpsikisme atau neo-vitalisme ala Henri Bergson.

Implikasi ide monisme adalah pandangan dunia (worldview) akan kehidupan sebagai kesatuan yang bersifat organik sekaligus hierarkis. Kontribusi utama Haeckel ialah skema-nya tentang silsilah evolusi hewan dan ras-ras manusia, juga penggambaran embriologi yang menunjukkan keserupaan semua spesies mamalia sebagai bukti kesatuan genealogis mereka – walau kemudian terbukti tidak akurat dalam beberapa segi. Upaya Haeckel dalam mendukung ide monisme terlihat dalam risalahnya ‘The Riddles of the Universe’ (1899) dan pembentukan Monist League di Jerman pada 1906.

Pemikiran Nietzsche boleh jadi paling memunculkan multi-tafsir di antara semua pemikir abad kesembilan belas. Seperti halnya Darwin, Nietzsche melihat naluri untuk menyintas sebagai fitrah semua bentuk kehidupan. Namun alih-alih menunjuk pada kompetisi antar individu untuk beradaptasi sebagai faktor utama evolusi kehidupan, ia menekankan pada perjuangan untuk menjadi ‘manusia yang melampaui’ (over-man, ubermensch) dari lingkungannya – untuk tidak tunduk pada naluri kawanan – sebagai hal terpenting. Di sini terletak perbedaan tajam antara Nietzsche dengan para evolusionis-liberal, yang mana filsafatnya menekankan pada individuasi dan transgresi sebagai faktor pendorong kemanusiaan/peradaban bergerak maju. Kaitannya dengan pemikiran vitalis sezaman diekspresikan oleh konsep kehendak akan kuasa (will to power), atau kehendak akan pengetahuan sebagai daya penggerak atau motif ‘survival’ paling utama.

Gagasan tentang ‘ras penguasa’ (master race) yang ditarik secara kasar dari filosofi Nietzsche maupun para evolusionis dan Darwinis sosial menjadi sentral di kalangan fasis maupun pendukung supremasi kulit putih selama masa kejayaan imperialisme Eropa antara 1870-an hingga 1920-an. Sebagai imbasnya, praktik eugenika yang semula ditujukan sebagai salah satu metode alternatif dan eksperimental dalam kerangka perbaikan kesejahteraan, menjadi bentuk politik rasial yang kasar untuk memusnahkan sang liyan dan orang-orang lemah.

Pada tahun 1905, salah satu organisasi internasional pertama yang mempromosikan eugenika, Gesselschaft fur Rassenhygiene (Racial Hygiene Society) didirikan di Berlin. Meski awalnya terbatas pada kalangan medis dan akademisi profesional, keanggotaan organisasi-organisasi yang mempromosikan higiene ras segera menjadi massif setelah naiknya rezim Nazi pada 1933.

Tidak lama setelahnya, suatu UU sterilisasi (pemandulan) ditetapkan untuk orang-orang dengan kondisi klinis seperti gangguan mental dan cacat fisik, serta para pecandu alkohol kronis. Pada September 1935, pemerintah Nazi menetapkan aturan untuk membatasi kewarganegaraan pada penduduk murni keturunan Jerman, sementara individu yang lahir dari perkawinan campuran (half-caste), termasuk keturunan Yahudi ataupun orang Gipsi tidak diakui.

Berbagai aturan itu tak pelak lagi menjadi cetak biru bagi segregasi terhadap kelompok populasi yang tak diinginkan dan berujung pada tindakan sterilisasi, euthanasia – tindakan mempercepat kematian terhadap pengidap penyakit yang tidak tersembuhkan – hingga genosida. Meski dalam ‘Mein Kampf’ (1923) Hitler tidak menggagas suatu bentuk pemusnahan yang menyasar penyandang disabilitas atau penyakit bawaan, kultus ‘Aryan race’ yang bertemu dengan gerakan eugenika/higiene ras di kalangan intelektual merupakan faktor pendorong dari banyak tindakan penindasan terhadap hak kemanusiaan yang terjadi pada masa itu.

Dorongan untuk pemurnian rasial dari unsur degeneratif telah menjadi wacana umum pada masa kejayaan fasisme dan diterapkan di sejumlah negara termasuk di Jepang, di mana praktik tersebut bertahan hingga periode pasca-perang dunia. Di negara tersebut, ide tentang penciptaan ‘bangsa/ras Jepang baru’ telah menjadi bagian integral dari modernisasi pasca-Meiji dan dianggap sebagai cara orang Jepang menandingi Barat dalam pertarungan kekuasaan global.

Adanya etos keksatriaan ala samurai maupun konsep ‘negara-kekeluargaan’ (kazoku kokka) merupakan landasan nasionalisme modern Jepang dan kebanggaan sebagai manusia-manusia unggul yang dibentuk oleh hubungan darah. Meski demikian terdapat perbedaan dalam merespons perkawinan atas dasar eugenika. Jika pada periode Meiji (1868-1912) ide perkawinan campuran antara ras kuning dengan putih dianggap mampu menaikkan taraf kecerdasan bangsa Jepang baru, maka pada masa pengaruh fasis setelah tahun 1920-an ide itu semakin tidak populer dibandingkan dengan dorongan untuk ‘pemurnian darah’ bangsa Jepang – bahkan dari perkawinan campur dengan sesama orang Asia.

Eugenika Para Kolonialis-Pemukim

Dalam sejarah imperialisme Barat, sejumlah negara yang terbentuk oleh kolonisasi pemukim dengan menyingkirkan penduduk asli dalam prosesnya, disebut dengan istilah kolonialis pemukim (settler-colonialist) termasuk Amerika, Australia dan Selandia Baru, hingga Afrika Selatan. Proyek kolonisasi Yahudi oleh gerakan zionisme juga kerap dikategorikan dalam istilah ini.

Kelompok-kelompok pemukim ini umumnya memiliki kepentingan untuk membedakan diri secara tegas dengan penduduk setempat, dan karena itu lebih terdampak oleh wacana dan perdebatan seputar perkawinan dengan model ‘seleksi buatan’ atau eugenika. Pada prinsipnya, wacana eugenika di negara kolonial-pemukim berkisar pada: (1) motif segregasi untuk mencegah perkawinan interrasial, dan (2) kebijakan perbaikan kesehatan masyarakat dari penyakit atau cacat mental yang diturunkan.

Di Australia dan Selandia Baru yang sebagian populasi awalnya terbentuk dari orang-orang ‘buangan’ seperti para kriminal dan tawanan, masalah kesehatan mental adalah salah satu yang paling krusial. Potensi bawaan menjadi kriminal, lemah mental ataupun predator seksual adalah beberapa hal yang paling mencemaskan bagi kemapanan masyarakat kulit putih. Belum lagi ditambah kenyataan bahwa negara-negara  ‘settler-colonial’ ini mulai dibanjiri oleh para imigran Asia, yang mungkin akan mendatangkan faktor-faktor degeneratif. Maka pada tahun 1899, Selandia Baru menetapkan UU Pembatasan Imigrasi (Immigration Restriction Act) dan disusul oleh Australia – yang baru saja mendapat status persemakmuran – pada tahun 1901. Kedua negara itu terkenal menerapkan kebijakan karantina dan seleksi ketat dalam menerima kaum pendatang.

Meski sejumlah lembaga telah dibentuk untuk mensosialisasikan eugenika sejak 1920-an, praktik ini mendapat cukup banyak alasan penentangan; Pertama, ada kekhawatiran di kalangan aktivisme buruh bahwa sterilisasi eugenik akan lebih menyasar segmen kelas pekerja. Kedua, prinsip ‘habeas corpus’ dalam sistem hukum Australia memungkinkan lembaga medis atau dokter yang melakukan sterilisasi tanpa bukti keras bahwa pasien mereka menderita penyakit degeneratif serius dapat dituntut balik. Ketiga, diperkirakan bahwa praktik sterilisasi atau penggunaan kontrasepsi secara tak langsung akan mendorong peningkatan rasio promiskuitas (seks bebas) dan penyakit menular seksual. Pada akhirnya orang menganggap prinsip segregasi sebagai alternatif yang lebih aman daripada rekayasa perkawinan eugenik dalam bentuk apapun.

Catatan Penutup

Kemunculan dan penyebaran eugenika secara global tidak terlepas dari ide bahwa manusia berevolusi atau bergerak menuju (potensi) kesempurnaannya – dimulai dari zaman Pencerahan, dan masih berada dalam satu alur perkembangan dengan apa yang kini disebut sebagai transhumanisme. Pada periode antara 1900 hingga 1950-an, eugenika menjadi suatu gagasan biopolitik yang diterapkan untuk kebutuhan ‘kesejahteraan’ di Barat dan pembangunan-bangsa (nation-building) di negara-negara Asia. Meski kini tidak lagi banyak orang membicarakannya, eugenika telah menjadi bagian integral dari pembangunan dan modernisasi banyak negara, dan jejak pengaruhnya dapat dilihat pada praktik medis atau kesehatan reproduksi terkait keluarga berencana.

Sementara itu, eugenika seakan menggemakan kembali mimpi buruk masa lampau, khususnya di negara-negara yang terdampak fasisme. Orang-orang Jerman dan banyak negara Eropa lain mengasosiasikan eugenika dengan genosida atau holokaus Nazi.

Di Jepang, praktik eugenika merefleksikan pemikiran untuk memperbaiki kemurnian dan keunggulan bangsa Jepang dalam persaingannya dengan Barat, baik secara politis maupun ekonomi. Kehancuran oleh perang, dan masuknya pengaruh Barat secara masif menciptakan generasi-generasi yang menanggung beban mental karena kekalahan; Tidak sedikit orang yng merasa menjadi bagian dari ‘penyakit’ masyarakat – karena gagal bersaing atau menganggur – kemudian menjalani isolasi sosial secara ekstrim (hikikomori), di mana keberadaan eugenika menjadi salah satu pangkal penyebabnya.

Referensi:
Alison Bashford & Philippa Levine (eds), ‘The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics’, Oxford University Press, 2010.
Elof Axel Carlson, ‘The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea’, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001
Gregory D. Smithers, ‘Science, Sexuality and Race in the United States and Australia 1780-1940’, University of Nebraska Press, 2017
Gregory Moore, ‘Nietzsche, Biology and Metaphor’, Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Ilustrasi: x.com

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225 Comments on “SEJARAH EUGENIKA II: Implikasi dan Kontroversi”

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