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KEMATIAN METAFISIKA DALAM PERSPEKTIF WITTGENSTEIN AWAL: Membaca Lagi “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus”

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Pada mulanya adalah kata (Yohanes 1:1)

“THE world is all that is the case,” tukas Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein, filsuf paling menghebohkan selepas masa Perang Dunia II itu dalam pembukaan bukunya yang termasyhur, “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus” (1922)—yang untuk selanjutnya kita singkat Tractatus. “Dunia ini adalah sedemikian adanya”, boleh jadi merupakan sebuah pernyataan yang cukup lugas dalam ranah filsafat di masa itu. Sebagai dalil pertama dari buku yang ditulis dalam bentuk berupa dalil-dalil pernyataan pendek dan diberi nomor urut itu, sejak semula pernyataan tersebut barangkali memang telah mengisyaratkan pandangan Wittgenstein terhadap metafisika.

Bagi Wittgenstein muda dengan Tractatus-nya, metafisika adalah sebuah daerah yang tabu bagi filsafat karena tak memiliki referensi-acuan yang jelas, yang dapat diungkapkan sebagai pengalaman empiris. Tentu saja, ini merupakan buah kesepakatannya dengan pemikiran Schopenhauer yang membagi kenyataan ke dalam dua wilayah. Yaitu, wilayah yang tidak kita ketahui secara konseptual; yang tak ada apapun mengenainya yang dapat kita bicarakan, dan wilayah pengalaman indrawi kita; atau wilayah fenomenal yang kita alami sehari-hari. Wilayah berada di luar jangkauan indra itu oleh Wittgenstein kemudian disebut sebagai The Mystically; sesuatu yang tak perlu dibicarakan karena belum diketahui atau dialami.

Boleh dikatakan, inti dari buku tipis yang judulnya konon terilhami “Tractatus Theologico-Politicus” karya Spinoza ini adalah “bentuk logis”; sebuah relasi internal yang sama-sama ada pada lukisan dan pemandangan alam, yang memungkinkan kita berbicara tentang dunia dalam bahasa.

Dari sinilah kemudian Wittgenstein memperkenalkan apa yang diistilahkannya dengan “The Theory of Picture” (Teori Gambar [Mengenai Makna]). Dalam teori ini, apapun proposisi yang dibahasakan oleh manusia haruslah memiliki dua unsur, yakni struktur bahasa dan struktur realitas, sehingga dengan demikian yang satu dapat menampilkan yang lainnya. Atau dengan kata lain, setiap kata merujuk kepada benda, setiap kalimat merujuk kepada kondisi alam nyata. Dalam Tractatus, suatu bahasa tertentu dimengerti sebagai bahasa model atau bahasa standar yang dengannya kita mendeskripsikan kenyataan (A picture is a fact”, “A picture is a model of reality”).

Persoalan Utama Filsafat

FILSAFAT Wittgenstein pada dasarnya adalah sebuah filsafat kasus yang lebih mengacu kepada upaya menentukan makna, kelogisan, kelayakan ungkapan bahasa, dan ketepatan aturan bahasa.

Bersama J.L.Austin di Oxford, ia mengkritik pedas filsafat Barat yang baginya selama ini telah melakukan kesalahan dengan terlampau memusatkan perhatian pada ontologi dan membangun fondasi di atas epistemologi. Padahal persoalan terbesar yang dihadapi oleh filsafat bukanlah terletak pada misteri-misteri dunia (ruang, waktu, materi, hubungan sebab-akibat, dan lain-lain), tetapi semata-mata lebih kepada masalah penggunaaan bahasa. Filsafat menjadi ruwet, bahkan tak terpahami lantaran kekacauan dalam pemakaian bahasa secara tidak tepat. Kesalahan penggunaan bahasa mengakibatkan hal-hal yang sederhana pun menjadi rumit. Sehingga, hal ini menyebabkan kita terperosok ke dalam kerancuan logika.

Tugas seorang filsuf, menurut Wittgenstein, pertama-tama adalah meluruskan kerancuan tersebut melalui analisis-analisis mendalam terhadap penggunaan bahasa. Inilah yang seyogyanya menjadi pikulan filsafat, yakni hanya menyeleksi masalah-masalah konseptual, menganalisa dan memperjelas konsep-konsep dan penggunaannya tersebut.

Karena itulah baginya bahasa filsafat yang masuk akal harus membatasi dirinya pada wilayah yang dapat kita bicarakan. Bila tidak, pembicaraan kita hanya akan tergelincir menjadi semacam omong kosong tak bermakna tatkala kita mencoba melampaui batas-batas tersebut. Dalam hal ini, secara amat tegas, ia menyatakan bahwa selayaknya filsuf mengkerangkeng diri dalam hal berbahasa dan logika. Tugas filsafat hanya berada sejauh perbatasan hal-hal yang masuk akal bagi pemikiran konseptual. Karena “kita selalu terkurung dalam suatu gambar”.

Metafisika dan Batas Indrawi

TENTU saja, metafisika sebagai studi tentang “yang ada” (sains of being), merupakan sebuah ranah yang menembus jauh keluar batas kemampuan penginderaan kita dalam upaya menghargai “totalitas” pengalaman dan pengetahuan manusiawi. Secara etimologis, ia bermakna mengatasi dunia fisik yang empiris. Ia mengkaji tentang ada, struktur realitas, prinsip pertama, akar terdalam, mengkaji kategori, scientia sacra, dan sebagai kehendak keindahan; yang menyelidiki kenyataan hingga bagian yang terdalam dari semua hal.

Dengan demikian, metafisika kemudian berbicara mengenai substansi, aksidensi, esensi, dan sebagainya. Hal-hal yang tak memiliki referensinya dalam wilayah dunia fenomenal yang mampu dikecap oleh panca indra kita, tapi berada dalam kerimbunan misteri yang tak bisa diusik, diempiriskan, dilogikakan, maupun dipaksa bertekuk lutut dalam genggaman logika manusia dan hasil pertarungan logika demi pencarian kebenaran absolut transendental.

Keberadaan Tuhan sebagai The Perfect Being misalnya, adalah sesuatu yang bersembunyi di luar dunia fenomenal, tak dapat diekspresikan atau digambarkan, sehingga di sini filsafat takkan mampu melihat dan mengajakNya bertatap muka, berkomunikasi dan membawaNya ke dalam pengalaman indrawi kita. Tentang hal ini dijawab Wittgenstein dengan lantang, bahwa: I would really, this is a fact, say “I can’t say. I don’t know,” because I haven’t any clear idea what I’m saying when I’m saying “I don’t cease to exist”. Selanjutnya ia mengatakan bahwa meskipun ia dapat memahami konsep Tuhan seperti keterlibatanNya dalam pengganjalan terhadap dosa dan kesalahan seseorang, namun ia tak bisa memahami konsepsi dari Sang Pencipta.

Karena itulah, bagi Wittgenstein, dunia Tuhan akan selalu berada di luar batas-batas dunia sekaligus terbaring di luar dunia, lantaran struktur bahasa adalah elemen primer yang mencerminkan fenomena realitas dalam dunia bahasa. Dalam hal ini, disadari atau tidak, bahasa menjadi pemantul dan pantulan realitas dunia yang “all thas is the case”, yang begitulah adanya. “What is the case—a fact—is the existence of atomic fact,” lanjut Wittgenstein. Dunia adalah fakta, pengalaman dengan fakta-fakta yang harus dapat dibagi hingga bagian-bagian yang terkecil sebagai bentuk-bentuk peristiwa.

Maka, dalam Tractatus, paling tidak ada dua alasan pokok yang dikemukakan oleh Wittgenstein perihal penolakannya terhadap metafisika. Pertama, karena metafisika—sebagaimana telah dikemukakan di awal—dianggap bersifat The Mystically, hal yang tak dapat diungkapan (inexpressible) ke dalam bahasa logis. Kedua, karena ada tiga problem metafisika itu sendiri, yakni: 1) Subject does not belong to the world; rather it is a limit of the world, 2) Death is not a event in life, we do not live to experience death, dan 3) God does not reveal Himself in the world.

The Mistically tak dapat dipikirkan, sebab “A logical picture of facts is a thought” (sebuah pemikiran adalah gambaran logis dari fakta-fakta). Apa yang dapat kita pikirkan hanyalah berlangsung dalam dunia yang kita ketahui, tidak melampauinya. Di sini, kematian sebagaimana yang dicontohkan, adalah pengalaman yang berada jauh di luar pengalaman hidup. Hakikat bahasa merupakan gambaran logis dunia empiris, yang tersusun atas proposisi-proposisi dan menggambarkan ‘keberadaan peristiwa-peristiwa’ (state of affairs). “A thought is proposition with a sense” (sebuah pemikiran adalah proposisi yang bermakna), dan “A proposition is a trust—function of elementary propositions” (Sebuah proposisi adalah sebuah kebenaran—fungsi dari elemen proposisi-proposisi). Proposisi ini, menurut Wittgenstein merupakan suatu gambaran atas realitas, atau sebuah model realitas yang dapat dipikirkan.

Lingkaran Wina dan Positivisme Logis

FILSAFAT Wittgenstein sesungguhnya sangat dipengaruhi oleh pemikiran gurunya di University of Cambridge, Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)—terutama dalam karya monumental, “Principia Mathematica”—dan peletak dasar logika modern, Gottlob Frege (1848-1925).

Russel terkenal dengan teori himpunan. “Logical Types”-nya sebagai usaha untuk memecahkan masalah paradoks yang menyatakan bahwa struktur bahasa harus paralel dengan struktur logis, di mana grammatika mesti mengandung logika tampak jelas dalam dalil-dalil Tractatus. Demikian pula dengan “Prinsip Isomorfi”-nya mengenai kesejajaran antara bahasa dan fakta.

Adalah dari Russell dan Frege, Wittgenstein mendapatkan fondasi lebih lebar bagi pemikiran Schopenhaues tentang dunia fenomenal yang dibacanya dengan ketat semasa remaja dan diamininya sejak semula. Dari sinilah kemudian, kita mendapatkan penjelasan bagaimana dunia dapat dilukiskan dalam bahasa, yang pada giliran berikutnya penjelasan tersebut memungkinkan kita memetakan batas-batas dari hal-hal yang dapat diungkapkan dalam bahasa secara masuk akal.

Berangkat dari Atomic Fact (Fakta Atomik) Russell-lah, Wittgenstein menyusun Tractus. Bahkan boleh dikatakan Atomic Fact Russell inilah yang menjadi landasan pacu keseluruhan pemikiran filsafat analitik Wittgenstein. Jika bagi filsuf-filsuf sebelumnya, pengetahuan adalah persoalan epistemologi, Russell yang bertolak dari pemahaman atas asumsi Frege—bahwa filsafat semestinya didasarkan pada logika sebagai sesuatu yang bebas dan terpisah dari pikiran manusia—mencoba memasukkan landasan logika bagi pengetahuan tentang dunia luar untuk mengkokohkan ilmu pengetahuan sebagai suatu kepastian yang absolut.

Dengan dasar matematika sebagai logika murni, Russell memelopori filsafat analitik dengan ciri-ciri khas antara lain menganalisis secara rinci proposisi-proposisi, istilah dan konsep di dalamnya. Sampai pada fase berikut, Vinna Circle (Lingkungan Wina) yang termasyhur dengan disiplin Matematika dan ilmu alam, menggunakan dan mengembangkan pendekatan Russel ini lebih lanjut.

Maka, tidaklah mengherankan jika kemudian Tractatus menjelma jadi semacam “kitab suci” bagi Lingkungan Wina, lingkungan keilmuan yang menjadi titik tolak perkembangan mazhab “Positivisme Logis” dengan tokohnya seperti A.J. Ayer tersebut. Bersama tokoh inilah, juga J.L. Austin, Wittgenstein memperkenalkan apa yang disebut sebagai “Ordinary Language Philosophy”.

Dengan Atomisme Logis, Wittgenstein—sebagaimana juga Filsafat Positivisme Logis dari Lingkungan Wina—mencoba membabat habis apa yang mereka sebut “omong kosong masa lalu”, termasuk dalam hal ini idealisme Jerman, bahasa Teologi, wacana politik ideologi Fasis, dan tentu saja metafisika.

Seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Tractatus, Atomisme Logis adalah “a combination of objects” (entitles, things). Di mana bahasa dapat dipecah ke dalam proposisi terkecil (atomic proposition) yang mengacu kepada fakta yang terkecil demi kepentingan verifikasi. Di sini, teknik analisa bahasa adalah sebagai metode untuk memecah proposisi majemuk menjadi proposisi molekuler. “In logic nothing is accidental; if a thing can occur in a atomic fact the possibilliy of that atomic fact must already be prejudget in the thing”, “In order to know an object, I must know not its external but all its internal quality”, dan “Space, time, and colour are forms of objects”. “In the atomic fact objects hang one in another like the links of a chain”; “The totality of existent atomic facts is the world”.

Dalam pernyataan-pernyataan Atomis Logis tersebut, suatu proposisi elementer menunjuk kepada suatu “state of affairs” dalam realitas. Suatu proposisi terdiri dari nama-nama, dan suatu nama menunjuk kepada suatu realitas pula. Berdasarkan verifikasi dalam Atomis Logisnya ini, Wittgenstein akhirnya sampai pada sebuah kesimpulan yang dinyatakan sebagai dalil penutup Tractus Logico-Philosophicus, bahwa: “What we cannot speak about, we must pass over is silence”, bahwa apa yang tidak dapat dibicarakan, diungkapkan dengan jelas, lebih baik didiamkan.

Tentu saja, hal ini tidak berarti Wittgenstein seorang atheis. Karena dalam Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus dan juga karya terbesarnya yang lain, Philosophical Investigations (1953), ia hanya menegaskan bahwa sebenarnya metode yang tepat dalam berfilsafat adalah sebagai berikut: tidak mengatakan sesuatu kecuali apa yang dapat dikatakan, yang kemudian diteruskan dengan istilah “language game”, yang di sini dimaksudkannya untuk membawa ke dalam kenyataan yang sesungguhnya bahwa menyatakan sesuatu dengan bahasa menjadi bagian dari suatu aktivitas, atau forma kehidupan.

Tentunya forma kehidupan yang diharapkan harus berjalan searah dengan language game yang kemudian berpengaruh pada terakuinya realitas yang sangat plural, relatif dan tidak akan dipaksa untuk bersikap seragam, namun harus beragam.

Karenanya, heterogenitas dalam ranah pluralitas serta ranah relativitas sebetulnya menjadi akar pemikiran Wittgenstein tentang filsafat bahasa dalam dunia metafisika yang sangat trans-realitas dan meta-realitas di dalam meta-bahasa.[]

Sedikit Rujukan:

Wittgenstein, Ludwig. “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus”. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2003.

Korner, Stephan. “Fundamental Questions of Philosophy: One Philosopher’s Answer”. Sussex: Harvester Press 1979.

Bartley III, William Warren. “Wittgenstein”. London: Quartet Books, 1974.

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